Leninist-Marxism As a Prism to Shakespeare's "Measure for Measure"

 

LENINIST-MARXISM AS A PRISM TO

SHAKESPEARE’S MEASURE FOR MEASURE

Prothoma Purohit

 

Abstract

Marxism is a social, political, and economic theory which is named after the German economist and philosopher Karl Marx[1]. This theory examines the effects of capitalism on labourers, production, and economic development of a country and urges the workers for a revolution to replace capitalism by a communist society if it is needed. Leninist-Marxism is a genre of Marxism developed by Russian Marxist Vladimir Lenin. Lenin was the leader of Russian revolution[2] and he has implemented Marxism into reality. This genre of Marxism holds the centre on the understanding that literature, art, and culture are inevitably the reflections of the “base structure” that means the social and economic conditions of a particular society. Measure for Measure is a play written by William Shakespeare (1564-1616) in 1604 and this work belongs to the third stage of Great Bard’s career. Based on this background, this paper seeks to explore how the play Measure for Measure can be interpreted in the light of Leninist-Marxist criticism.

Keywords: Marxism, capitalism, communist society, Vladimir Lenin

Introduction

“Let the ruling classes tremble at a Communist revolution. The proletarians have nothing to lose but their chains. They have a world to win. Workers of the world, unite!”

                                                                                        -Karl Marx, The Communist Manifesto, 1848

Marxism analyses the conflict between social classes, specifically the capitalists or the bourgeois and the working-class people or the proletariat. It aims for a classless society which will be run by the principle of communism. There will be no private ownership of the means of production and all the properties will be owned by the State.

Leninist-Marxist criticism is firmly grounded on the belief that all the social and economic occurrences should be the only subject matter of a creative piece of work. In the poem Fra Lippo Lippi (Browning, 1855), Lippo is always under the prohibition of the higher authorities of the church. The hierarchal figures want Lippo’s paintings to be the reflections of religion only. He is allowed to paint the soul, not the body. Similarly, the Leninist-Marxist criticism seeks to analyse how literature and culture can be used to depict the exploitation of the upper-class over the proletariat and it also works as a sign of protest to advance a revolution instead of prioritising any fantastical thought or experimental mindset of an author in a work.

The third stage of Shakespeare’s career is known as “Out of the depths.” The works of this period abandon frivolity, blunt humours, romantic love, fantasy and embrace insightful philosophical interpretations, the dark truths of political arena, and the existing turmoil of a society. Therefore, the Leninist-Marxism is one of the finest theories to discover how the concept of power is monopolised by the ruling classes for their own privileges and how it causes sufferings to the proletariat.

The Influence of Rousseau and Hegel on Marxism

Jean Jacques Rousseau famously remarked, “Man is born free and everywhere he is in chains.” He discusses in the book Discourse on the Arts and Sciences (Rousseau, 1750) that it is civilization, scientific flourishments, and industrial growth which have detached human beings from the nature and smashed the sense of brotherhood. In a civilized society, laws and regulations are made according to the convenience of the aristocratic people. Some key elements of the capitalist system can describe Rousseau’s philosophy the best.

· The bourgeois have the entire control over all the means of productions.

· The capitalists put intense pressure for work on the workers for maximizing the profit. In this way, the labourers are inhumanly exploited by their owners and it creates an imbalance in the owner-worker relationship.

· A strong sense of “alienation” arises in the mind of the workers. This sense of alienation comes in four ways. These are: alienation from the product of labour, alienation from the job, alienation from others, and alienation from own self.

· The bourgeois are able to manipulate the social institutions, for example, the government, the media, banking and financial systems by dint of their power so that they can retain their positions forever.

According to the ‘Dialectic Method’ of German philosopher Georg Hegel, everything copes with its inherent percussion. Everything is in the constant process of change. Being is always in the process of becoming. A being perishes itself by constant negation and reaches a higher stage. This process is known as AUFHEBUNG (sublation).

                                                            Figure: Hegel’s Dialectic Method

All the unequal treatments, exploitations, and the sense of alienation infallibly drive the proletariat to initiate a rebel against the bourgeois and claim for equal rights. Thus, capitalism, itself, contains the seed of self-destruction. The revolution of the proletariat is led by the enlightened, active, and resolute communist leaders who are also known as “the vanguard of the proletariat.” The leaders reunite the workers and raise consciousness among them. The communists’ aim is to establish communism which replaces private ownership by collective ownership and ensures equality among different classes.

The Principle of Leninism

In act v, scene i of Shakespeare’s play A Midsummer Night’s Dream (Shakespeare, 1600, p. 908), Thesues says,

“The lunatic, the lover, and the poet

Are of imagination all compact:

And as imagination bodies forth

The forms of things unknown, the poet’s pen

Turns them to shape and gives airy to nothing.”

In the poem “Ode to a Nightingale” (Keats, 1819), Keats says in the last two lines, “Was it a vision, or a waking dream, / Fled is that music:- Do I wake or sleep?” Keats listens to the dulcet song of the nightingale which is a symbol of immortality. He appreciates the beauty of earth and nature and ponders over the transience of human life. But he cannot understand whether he has really heard the song of the nightingale or it is just his imagination since he has taken opium.

Lenin has argued in 1905 that literature must become an instrument of the party. The proliferation of imagination and experimentation which is expressed through the speeches of Thesues and Keats are absolutely banned in his view. In Peter Barry’s book Beginning Theory: An Introduction to Literary and Cultural Theory (Barry, 2009, p. 153), it is said that writers like Proust and Joyce have been stigmatised by Lenin for being an example of “bourgeois decadence” in their works. This book also records the statement of Lenin about literature. Lenin says, “Literature must become party literature. Literature must become part of the organised, methodical, and unified labours of the social-democratic party.” Leninist-Marxism is also called “Vulgar Marxism” because it declares that political determinism is the “ultimate determinant” of literature. This theory considers all the writers inevitably trapped within their social class position. Here, we can take the example of Rabindranath Tagore who belongs to the exceptionally flourished cultural family. This family is known to be the “key driver” of Bengali Renaissance for the remarkable contributions of the family members to various fields such as business, literature, art, and music. The devotion to infinity, and the complex psychology of the posh characters have been reflected in many of his famous works like Gitanjali (গীতাঞ্জলি), Nastanirh (নষ্টনীড়) , Chokher Bali (চোখের বালি) etcetera. When Tagore went to Shilaidaha in November 1889 to look after their family states, he was spellbound by the natural beauty. The mighty presence of the River Padma surrounding Shilaidaha left an aesthetic imprint on his poetic mind. However, he was awestruck by the condition of the working-class people steeped into misery, poverty, and exploitation by the moneylenders and the landlords. He did not have any idea about this side of life before. Tagore started working for social reformations and his poem “Dui Bigha Jomi”[3] (“দুই বিঘা জমি”) (Tagore, 1908) represents the bitter truth of cruelty and hypocrisy of the power-holders. An excerpt from the poem is given below:

“এ জগতে হায় সেই বেশি চায় আছে যার ভূরি ভূরি,

রাজার হস্ত করে সমস্ত কাঙালের ধন চুরি।”

Leninist-Marxism As a Lens to Measure for Measure

Shakespeare develops this play as a problem play and a dark comedy where there is a tension between law and mercy. Justice is the main theme of this play. If we interpret this play from the perspective of Leninist-Marxism, we will discover class conflicts and power relations of its time. There are two major aspects in this regard. These are:

· The imprudence of Angelo and law as a weapon to veil his duality

· The underlying hypocrisy of Duke Vincentio

The Imprudence of Angelo and Law As a Weapon to Veil His Duality

Angelo is regarded to be brimming with all the angelic qualities by Duke Vincentio and the chief judge Escalus. In act i, scene i, Escalus says, “If any in Vienna of worth, / To undergo such ample grace and honour, / It is Lord Angelo” (Shakespeare, 1604, p. 803). So, Angelo has been entrusted with the responsibility of cleansing the vices from Vienna. When he gets power, he declares that all the brothels and pimps will be turned down. He rigidly implements law and order and it causes a great deal of anguish for the marginalised people especially for the prostitutes. In act i, scene ii, Mrs. Overdonne, one of the brothel owners, says, “But shall all our houses of resort in the suburbs be pulled down? What shall become of me?” (Shakespeare, 1604, p. 804) Angelo imposes laws only, but he cannot ensure any optimistic future for these people. In the book The Prince, Niccolo Machiavelli states, “Princes must avoid making themselves hated and despised; the goodwill of people is a better defence than any fortress” (Machiavelli, 1532, ch.19, p. 134-149). In this play, Angelo lacks the insight of Machiavelli.

Moreover, Angelo imprisons Claudio for impregnating Juliet out of wedlock. Claudio’s sister Isabella pleads to Angelo for Claudio’s life. When Angelo sees Isabella, he loses his abstinence and proposes Isabella to spend a night with him. In act ii, scene iv, he says, “By yielding up thy body to my will, / Or else he must not only die the death” (Shakespeare, 1604, p. 814). The Freudian interpretation of Angelo’s nature is his id has won over his super-ego and his ego has failed to maintain balance between his super-ego and his id. Angelo uses his power to hide all his mischiefs. When Isabella wants to expose Angelo in front of everyone, he says that nobody will believe in Isabella’s words.

The Underlying Hypocrisy of Duke Vincentio

The city of Vienna is a world of brothels and pimps, senseless copulation, promiscuity, mindless pregnancies, where the Christian notion of marital sex is turned down. In the Duke’s words, “Liberty plucks Justice by the nose, / The baby beats the nurse, and quite athwart, goes all decorum” (act i, scene iii) (Shakespeare, 1604, p. 805). However, he lacks of insight, courage, and intelligence to retain the stability of his dukedom. He further says, “I do fear, too dreadful, / Sith ’twas my fault to give people scope, / ’Twould be my tyranny to strike and gall them” (act i, scene iii) (Shakespeare, 1604, p. 806). Therefore, he decides to handover all his power and responsibilities to Angelo who is an epitome of “ample grace and honour.” Vincentio disguises him as a friar in order to observe the activities of Angelo. When he comes to know about Angelo’s vile proposal to Isabella, he does not even try to rectify Angelo’s mistake or take the power away from him. Rather, he devises the famous “bed trick” to trap Angelo. In act iii, scene i, he says to Mariana, “We shall advise this wrong maid to go in your place, / By this your brother saved, your honour untainted, the poor Mariana advantaged, the corrupt deputy scaled” (Shakespeare, 1604, p. 816).

Conclusion

In conclusion, it can be said that the Leninist-Marxist theory can be applied to this play Measure for Measure for the exploration of socio and economic hierarchies, power relations, and class conflicts. It highlights the tension between the interests of the ruling class people and the agony of the lower-class people. By examining this play through the prism of Leninist-Marxism, we can gain a deeper understanding of how law can be used for the enjoyment of privileges by the higher authorities and for the deprivation of the marginalised community. Therefore, this play catches the exact essence of the Leninist-Marxist theory.

References

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Retrieved September 5, 2024, from https://www.shakespeareonline.com/biography/fourperiods.html

 

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Footnotes

[1] Karl Marx is a German economist and philosopher. He has composed The Communist Manifesto collaboration with Friedrich Engels and it was published in 1848. The main aim of this manifesto is to establish a classless society where the bourgeois will not be able to reign by grasping the means of production and the proletariats will not feel alienated and dehumanised. The State will take control of all the properties.

[2] The Russian Revolution took place in 1917. It occurred with the aim of abolishing the imperial power and adopting a socialist form of government. Socialism does not support private ownership and inspires a society where State has the control over all the properties. Tsar Nicholas II stepped down as the consequence of this movement and Lenin was one of the prominent leaders.

[3] The poem “Dui Bigha Jomi” (“দুই বিঘা জমি”) is a poem written by Rabindranath Tagore in 1908. This poem is narrated by Upen, a helpless peasant, who has nothing but a small piece of land where his family has lived for seven generations. But a voracious landlord forcefully snatches this land from him by fabricating a nasty conspiracy. Though Upen visits many different places as a holyman after this incident, he cannot forget his homeland. One day, he returns to his homeland and sees that everything is changed. But he recognises the mango tree where he used to play in his childhood. He sits under the tree and two mangoes fall from the tree. Upen considers these mangoes as a gift from the tree. But the men of the landlord accuse him of trespassing and take him to the landlord. The landlord accuses Upen of theft.